Are You a Positive Thinker?

Some people just seem to have a natural ability to put a positive spin on almost everything. Rather than viewing challenges as obstacles, they see them as opportunities for growth. Instead of focusing on the negative events of their day, they think about the good things that happened.

Are you one of these positive thinkers? Research has shown that positive thinking can have a variety of health benefits ranging from lowering stress to increasing the strength and quality of our relationships. Do you have any positive thinking strategies that help you maintain an optimistic outlook on life? Please share your advice with our readers and read more about what other people have suggested - Share Your Positive Thinking Tips

Cognitive Dissonance - Psychology

Definition: What happens when new information conflicts with a previously existing belief? While we tend to seek consistency between our beliefs, our behaviors and our experience, you can probably think of a few instances where people behave in ways that are contrary to their own beliefs.
In psychology, cognitive dissonance refers to the feelings of discomfort and unease that arise when there is a discrepancy between our beliefs and behaviors. Learn more and find examples in this overview of cognitive dissonance.

Etymology of Psychology

The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (ψυχή, psukhē, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; and -λογος -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"^.The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."
Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation. For example:

• What is the most appropriate methodology for psychology: mentalism, behaviorism, or a compromise?
• Are self-reports a reliable data-gathering method?
• What conclusions can be drawn from null hypothesis tests?
• Can first-person experiences (emotions, desires, beliefs, etc.) be measured objectively?

Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind, brain, and cognition, and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of cognitive science, or philosophy of mind, such as:

• What is a cognitive module?
• Are humans rational creatures?
• What psychological phenomena come up to the standard required for calling it knowledge?
• What is innateness?  
•  

What is Psychological testing ?

Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual. The technical term for the science behind psychological testing is psychometrics. By samples of behavior, one means observations of an individual performing tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand, which often means scores on a test. These responses are often compiled into statistical tables that allow the evaluator to compare the behavior of the individual being tested to the responses of a norm group.

How to Read (and Understand) a Psychology Journal Article

If you are studying psychology in high school or college, you are going to need to read articles published in academic and professional journals at some point. You might read these articles as part of a literature review for a paper you are writing, or your instructor may even ask you to write a critique of an article. Whatever the reason, it is essential that you understand what you are reading and find ways to then summarize the content in your own words.

Research articles can be complex and may seem daunting, especially to beginners who have no experience reading or writing this type of paper. Learning how to read this type of writing is mostly a matter of experience, but utilizing a few simple tactics can make this process much easier.

1. Start by Understanding How a Journal Article is Structured:

At first glance, a journal article may seem to be a confusing collection of unfamiliar terminology and complicated tables. However, most articles follow a fairly standardized format that conforms to guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA). By understanding this structure, you will feel more comfortable working your way through each section.

• The Abstract: This short, paragraph-long section provides a brief overview of the article. Reading the abstract is a great way to get an idea for what information the article will cover. Reading this section first can help you decide if the article is relevant to your topic or interests.

• The Introduction: The second section of the article introduces the problem and reviews previous research and literature on the topic. This part of the article will help you better understand the background of the research and the current question that is under investigation.

• The Method Section: This part of the article details how the research was conducted. Information about the participants, the procedures, the instruments and the variables that were measured are all described in this section.

• The Results Section: So what were the actual results of the study? This important section details what the researchers found, so pay careful attention to this part of the article. Tables and figures are frequently included in addition to the text.

• The Discussion Section: What do the results of the study really mean? In this section, the author(s) interpret the results, outline the implications of the study and provide possible descriptions of future research that should be conducted.

• The References Sections: This section lists all of the articles and other sources cited within the article.

2. Skim through the article:

Once you understand the basic structure of the article, your first step should be to briefly skim through the material. Never start by doing an in-depth reading of an article before you have skimmed over each section. Attempting a thorough read-through before you’ve skimmed the contents is not only difficult; it may be a waste of valuable time. Skimming is a great way to become familiar with the topic and the information included in the paper. In some cases, you may find that the paper is not well-suited to your needs, which can save time and allow you to move on to a research article that is more appropriate.

3. Take Notes on Each Section and Ask Questions:

Your next step should be to carefully read through each section, taking notes as you go. Write down important points, but also make note of any terminology or concepts that you do not understand. Once you’ve read the entire article, go back are start looking up the information that you didn’t understand using another source. This might involve using a dictionary, textbook, online resource or even asking a classmate or your professor.

4. Identify Key Information:

Whether you are looking for information that supports the hypothesis in your own paper or carefully analyzing the article and critiquing the research methods or findings, there are important questions that you should answer as you read the article.

1. What is the main hypothesis?
2. Why is this research important?
3. Did the researchers use appropriate measurements and procedures?
4. What were the variables in the study?
5. What was the key finding of the research?
6. Do the findings justify the author’s conclusions?

5. Note the Sources Cited:

When reading a research article, it’s all too easy to focus on the main sections and overlook the references. However, the reference section can actually be one of the most important parts of the paper, especially if you are looking for further sources for your own paper. Spending some time reviewing this section can indicate important research articles on the topic area in which you are interested.

Women in Psychology

The contributions of women psychologists have often been overlooked throughout psychology's history. Learn more about the lives, careers, and theories of some of the best known women in psychology.

• Important Women in Psychology History

The contributions of many of psychology's most eminent female thinkers have long been ignored, but that is starting to change as more history texts begin to recognize women such as Karen Horney, Mary Ainsworth, Leta Hollingworth and Christine Ladd-Franklin in their pages. Learn more about some of the most famous women in psychology.

• Anna Freud Biography

Anna Freud was influenced by her father's psychoanalytic theories, but her own contributions to ego psychology and child psychoanalysis made her an important theorist in her own right. Learn more about her life, career, and contributions to psychology in this biography of Anna Freud.

• Karen Horney Biography

Karen Horney made significant contributions to psychoanalysis, personality theory, and feminine psychology. Learn more about Karen Horney's life, career, and contributions to psychology.

• Melanie Klein Biography

Melanie Klein was an Austrian psychoanalyst best known for creating the therapeutic technique known as play therapy. Learn more about her life, career, and theory in this brief biography of Melanie Klein.

• Mary Whiton Calkins Biography

Mary Whiton Calkins is probably best-known as the first woman president of the American Psychological Association, but she made many more contributions to the field as well. Learn more about the life, career, and contributions of Mary Whiton Calkins.

• Mary Ainsworth Biography

Learn more about developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in this brief biography of her life, career and contributions to psychology.

• Mamie Phipps Clark Biography

Mamie Phipps Clark was a pioneering psychologist who faced considerable obstacles in psychology because of her race and her sex. Learn more about her life and legacy.

Other Thinkers Also Considered "Fathers of Psychology"

A number of other influential thinkers can also claim to be "Fathers of Psychology" in some way or another. The following are just a few of these individuals who are noted in specific areas of psychology:

• William James: The Father of American Psychology; he helped establish psychology in the U.S. and his book, The Principles of Psychology, became an instant classic.

• Sigmund Freud: The Father of Psychoanalysis; his theories and work established psychoanalysis as a major school of thought in psychology.
• Hugo Münsterberg: The Father of Applied Psychology; he was an early pioneer of several applied areas including clinical, forensic and industrial-organizational psychology.

• John Bowlby: The Father of Attachment Theory; he developed the theory of attachment.

• Kurt Lewin: The Father of Social Psychology; his work pioneered the use of scientific methods to study social behavior.

• Edward Thorndike: The Father of Modern Educational Psychology; his research on the learning process helped establish the foundation for educational psychology.

• Jean Piaget: The Father of Developmental Psychology; his theory of cognitive development revolutionized how research thought about children's intellectual growth.

• Ulric Neisser: The Father of Modern Cognitive Psychology; the cognitive movement in psychology received a major boost from the publication of his 1967 book, Cognitive Psychology.

• Lightner Witmer: The Father of Modern Clinical Psychology; he founded the world's first journal devoted to clinical psychology, The Psychological Clinic, in 1907.

• Gordon Allport: The Father of Personality Psychology; he was one of the first psychologists to study personality.

Obviously, not everyone is going to agree with these generalized titles. A few people might suggest that Freud is the father of psychology, since he is perhaps one of its most "known" figures. Others might suggest that Aristotle is the true father of psychology, since he is responsible for the theoretical and philosophical framework that contributed to psychology's earliest beginnings. Still others might argue that those earliest researchers such as Helmholtz and Fechner deserve credit as the founders of psychology.
No matter which side of the argument you are on, one thing that is easy to agree on is that all of these individuals had an important influence on the growth and development of psychology. While the theories of each individual are not necessarily as influential today, all of these psychologists were important in their own time and had a major impact on how psychology

The Father of Modern Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt is the man most commonly identified as the father of psychology. Why Wundt? Other people such as Hermann von Helmholtz, Gustav Fechner and ErnstWeber were involved in early scientific psychology research, so why are they not credited as father of psychology?
Because Wundt's formation of the world's first experimental psychology lab is usually noted at the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct science. By establishing a lab that utilized scientific methods to study the human mind and behavior, Wundt took psychology from a mixture of philosophy and biology and made it a unique field of study.
In addition to making psychology a separate science, Wundt also had a number of students who went to become influential psychologists themselves. Edward B. Titchener was responsible for establishing the school of thought known as structuralism, James McKeen Cattell became the first professor of psychology in the United States and G. Stanley Hall established the first experimental psychology lab in the U.S.

Who Is the Father of Psychology?

Who is considered the "Father of Psychology"? This question does not necessarily have a cut-and-dry answer since many individuals have contributed to the inception, rise and evolution of modern day psychology. We'll take a closer look at single individual who is most often cited as well as other individuals who are also considered fathers of psychology.

Subfields of Psychology

Some of the Major Subfields of Psychology

By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide
The study and practice of psychology encompasses a vast range of topics and a large number of subfields and specialty areas have developed as a result. Because human behavior is so varied, the number of subfields in psychology is constantly growing and evolving.
Psychology can be roughly divided into two major sections: research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base, and practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real world.
Because psychology touches on a number of other subjects including biology, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology, new areas of research and practice are continually forming. Some of these subfields have been firmly established as areas of interest, and many colleges and universities offer courses and degree programs in these topics.

Biopsychology

• This area of psychology is known by a number of titles including behavioral neuroscience, psychobiology, and neuropsychology.

• Biopsychologists study the relationship between the brain and behavior, such as how the brain and nervous system impact our thoughts, feeling, and moods.

• This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.

Clinical Psychology

• Clinical psychology is the largest specialty area in psychology.

• These psychologists apply psychological principles and research to assess, diagnose, and treat patients with mental and emotional illnesses.

• Clinicians often work in private practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

Developmental Psychology

• Developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive development that occurs over the course of the lifespan.

• These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays.

Forensic Psychology

• Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments, or working directly in the court system.

• Forensic psychologists often conduct evaluations, screen witnesses, or provide testimony in court cases.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

• Psychologists in this field apply psychological principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior.

• Some psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and human-computer interaction.

• Research in this field is known as applied research because it seeks to solve real world problems.

Personality Psychology

• Personality psychologists study the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make each person unique.

• These psychologists often work in academic settings as instructors or researchers.

Social Psychology

• Social psychologists study social behaviors, including how individual self-image and behavior is impacted by interactions with others.

• These psychologists often conduct research in academic settings, but others work in such areas such as advertising and government.

School Psychology

• School psychologists work within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.

• These psychologists collaborate with teachers, parents, and students to find solutions to academic, social, and emotional problems.

• Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into private practice and serve as consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in school psychology.

Branches of Psychology?

 

Positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on understanding 

human well-being and happiness.

There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology. Each branch looks at questions and problems from a different perspective. While each branch has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior. The following are some of the major branches of psychology within the field today.

1. Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

• What is Abnormal Psychology?
• Mental Disorders

2. Behavioral Psychology

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and many other areas.

• What is Behaviorism?
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement Schedules
• Behavioral Analysis

3. Biopsychology

The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology.

• What is Biopsychology?
• Neuron Basics
• Nervous & Endocrine Systems
• Structure of a Neuron

4. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s.

• What is Cognitive Psychology?
• Careers in Cognitive Psychology
• Memory
• Intelligence

5. Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.

• What is Comparative Psychology?

6. Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world.

7. Developmental Psychology

This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual and personality development. Topics studied in this field include everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.

• What is Development?
• How is Development Studied?
• Issues in Developmental Psychology
• Child Development Theories

8. Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student outcomes.

• Careers in School Psychology
• Jung and Learning Styles
• Multiple Intelligences

9. Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to social issues.

• Introduction to Research Methods
• Steps in Psychology Research
• The Simple Experiment
• Correlational Studies

10. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.

11. Health Psychology

Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors influence health and illness. Other terms including medical psychology and behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably with the term health psychology. The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.

• What Is Health Psychology?
• Careers In Health Psychology

12. Personality Psychology

This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

• What is Personality?
• Theories of Personality
• Personality Disorders

13. Social Psychology

Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics including group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication and social influences on decision-making.

• What is Social Psychology?
• Research Areas in Social Psychology
• Love & Attraction
• Leadership
• Nonverbal Communication

What Is Social Psychology?

What is it that shapes our attitudes? Why are some people such great leaders? How does prejudice develop and how can we overcome it? These are just a few of the big questions of interest in the field of social psychology. What exactly is social psychology and what do social psychologists do? Continue reading to learn more about this important branch of psychology.

Branches of Psychology?

•Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

•Behavioral Psychology

Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors. Conditioning, reinforcement and punishment are key concepts used by behaviorists.

•Biopsychology

While our minds plays a role in our physical well-being, our biological processes also influence our mental health.

•Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior.

•Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the intersection of psychology and the law.

•Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

•Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that explores internal states including attention, thinking, and decision-making.

•Health Psychology

Health psychology focuses on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.

•I/O Psychology

Industrial-organizational psychology is concerned with the study of workplace behavior.

•Human Factors Psychology

Human factors is the branch of psychology concerned with applying psychological principles to product design, usability issues, human-computer interaction and ergonomics

•Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology

•Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is concerned with the lifespan of individuals. Like theories of child development, intellectual development, cognitive development, and more

•Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns. Find more information about educational psychology

•Personality Psychology
Personality Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with How do our personalities develop?

Social Psychology

•Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior.

•Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and physical activity.

•Positive Psychology

Branches of Psychology?

The branches of psychology are: Clinical psychology, Cognitive psychology, Developmental psychology, Evolutionary psychology, Forensic psychology, Health psychology, Neurophysiology, Occupational psychology and Social psychology.

Abnormal Psychology
Behavioral Psychology
Biopsychology
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Health Psychology
I/O Psychology
Human Factors Psychology
Comparative Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Educational Psychology
Personality Psychology
Social Psychology
Sports Psychology
Positive Psychology

Questions in Psychology

Questions in Psychology

From its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of different questions. The initial question of how to define psychology helped establish it as a science separate from physiology and philosophy. Additional questions that psychologists have faced throughout history include:

• What topics and issues should psychology be concerned with?

• What research methods should be used to study psychology?

• Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other aspects of human behavior?

• Is psychology really a science?

• Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?

The Origins of Psychology

Humanistic Psychology - The Third Force

While the first half of the twentieth-century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the second half of the century. Often referred to as the "third force" in psychology, this theoretical perspective emphasized conscious experiences.
American psychologist Carl Rogers is often considered to be one of the founders of this school of thought. While psychoanalysts looked at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focused purely on environmental causes, Rogers believed strongly in the power of free will and self-determination. Psychologist Abraham Maslow also contributed to humanistic psychology with his famous hierarchy of needs theory of human motivation.

Contemporary Psychology

As you have seen in this brief overview of psychology’s history, this discipline has seen dramatic growth and change since its official beginnings in Wundt’s lab. The story certainly does not end here. Psychology has continued to evolve since 1960 and new ideas and perspectives have been introduced. Recent research in psychology looks at many aspects of the human experience, from the biological influences on behavior to the impact of social and cultural factors.
Today, the majority of psychologists do not identify themselves with a single school of thought. Instead, they often focus on a particular specialty area or perspective, often drawing on ideas from a range of theoretical backgrounds. This eclectic approach has contributed new ideas and theories that will continue to shape psychology for years to come.

The Origins of Psychology

The Rise of Behaviorism

Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind. Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.
Behaviorism had it's earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between and environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
An American psychologist named John B. Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basics principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book Behaviorism (1924), writing:

"Behaviorism...holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic."

The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. Psychologist B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept of operant conditioning, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.
While behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today. Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.

The Origins of Psychology

The Functionalism of William James

Psychology flourished in American during the mid- to late-1800s. William James emerged as one of the major American psychologists during this period and the publication of his classic textbook, The Principles of Psychology, established him as the father of American psychology. His book soon became the standard text in psychology and his ideas eventually served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism.
The focus of functionalism was on how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment. Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation. While both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, their conceptions of it were significantly different. While the structuralists sought to break down mental processes into their smallest parts, the functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and changing process. While functionalism is no longer a separate school of thought, it would go on to influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior.
Up to this point, early psychology stressed conscious human experience. An Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud changed the face of psychology in a dramatic way, proposing a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind. Freud’s clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other ailments led him to believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior.
In his book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud detailed how these unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips of the tongue (known as "Freudian slips") and dreams. According to Freud, psychological disorders are the result of these unconscious conflicts becoming extreme or unbalanced. The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a tremendous impact on 20th-century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other areas including art, literature and popular culture. While many of his ideas are viewed with skepticism today, his influence on psychology is undeniable.

The Origins of Psychology

Structuralism Becomes Psychology’s First School of Thought

Edward B. Titchener, one of Wundt’s most famous students, would go on to found psychology’s first major school of thought. According to the structuralists, human consciousness could be broken down into much smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions.
While structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were unreliable, limiting, and subjective. When Titchener died in 1927, structuralism essentially died with him.

The Origins of Psychology

Psychology Emerges as a Separate Discipline

During the mid-1800s, a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to investigate reaction times. His book published in 1874, Principles of Physiological Psychology, outlined many of the major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior. He later opened the world’s first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. This event is generally considered the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline.
How did Wundt view psychology? He perceived the subject as the study of human consciousness and sought to apply experimental methods to studying internal mental processes. While his use of a process known as introspection is seen as unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the stage for future experimental methods. An estimated 17,000 students attended Wundt’s psychology lectures, and hundreds more pursued degrees in psychology and studied in his psychology lab. While his influence dwindled in the years to come, his impact on psychology is unquestionable

The Origins of Psychology

The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology

While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two separate entities that interact to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.

The Origins of Psychology

A Brief History of Psychology Through the Years

By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

Philosophers such as Rene Descartes (above) played an important role in the history of psychology.
While the psychology of today reflects the discipline’s rich and varied history, the origins of psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. In order to gain a full understanding of psychology, you need to spend some time exploring its history and origins. How did psychology originate? When did it begin? Who were the people responsible for establishing psychology as a separate science?

Why Study Psychology History?

Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking a human behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have learned thus far.

What are the Different Branches of Psychology?

Abnormal Psychology: This explores psychopathology and abnormal behavior. Examples of disorders covered in this field include depression, OCD, sexual deviation and dissociative disorder.

Biopsychology: This looks at the role the brain and neurotransmitters play in influencing our thoughts, feelings and behaviours. It combines neuroscience and the study of basic psychology.

Clinical Psychology: The focus here is the assessment and appropriate treatment of mental illness and abnormal behaviours.

Cognitive Psychology: This branch of psychology focuses attention on perception and mental processes. For example, it looks at how people think about and process experiences and events – their automatic thoughts and core beliefs. Also, how they learn, remember and retrieve information.

Comparative Psychology: This field of psychology studies animal behavior. Comparative psychologists work closely with biologists, ecologists, anthropologists, and geneticists.

Counseling Psychology: Here, the focus is on providing therapeutic interventions for clients who are struggling with some mental, social, emotional or behavioural issue. It also looks at living well, so people reach their maximum potential in life.

Developmental Psychology: This looks at lifespan human development, from the cradle to the grave. It looks at what changes, and what stays the same, or even deteriorates over time. Also, whether growth and change is continuous, or is associated with certain ages and stages. Another area of interest is the interaction of genes and the environment.

Educational Psychology: This focuses attention on learning, remembering, performing and achieving. It includes the effects of individual differences, gifted learners and learning disabilities.

Experimental Psychology: Although all of psychology emphasises the central importance of the scientific method, designing and applying experimental techniques, then analysing and interpreting the results is the main job of experimental psychologists. They work in a wide range of settings, including schools, colleges, universities, research centers, government organisation and private businesses and enterprises.

Forensic Psychology: Psychology and the law intersect in this field. It is where psychologists (clinical psychologists, neurologists, counselling psychologists etc) share their professional expertise in legal or criminal cases.

Health Psychology: This branch of psychology promotes physical, mental and emotional health – including preventative and restorative strategies. It looks at how people deal with stress, and cope with and recover from, illnesses.

Human Factors Psychology: This is an umbrella category that looks at such areas as ergonomics, workplace safety, human error, product design, and the interaction of humans and machines.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology: This applies findings from theoretical psychology to the workplace. Its goal is increasing employee satisfaction, performance, productivity – and matching positions to employees’ strengths. Other areas of interest are group dynamics, and the development of leadership skills.

Social Psychology: This is what many people think of when they hear the word “psychology”. It includes the study of group behaviour, social norms, conformity, prejudice, nonverbal behaviour/ body language, and aggression.

Sports Psychology: This area investigates how to increase and maintain motivation, the factors that contribute to peak performance, and how being active can enhance our lives

How many branches of psychology are there?

How many branches of psychology are there?

There are many branches of psychology; how you split them up will usually depend on which part of the world you are, even which university or institution you were trained at. The following are seen as the main branches of psychology:

• Clinical psychology - integrates science, theory, and practice in order to understand, predict and relieve maladjustment, disability, and discomfort. Clinical psychology also promotes adaption, adjustment and personal development. A clinical psychologist concentrates on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life, across varying cultures and socioeconomic levels. In other words, clinical psychology is the scientific study and application of psychology in order to understand, prevent, and alleviate psychologically-caused distress or dysfunction (disability) and promote the patient's well-being and personal development.
  
  Psychological assessment and psychotherapy ("What is psychotherapy?") are central to the practice of clinical psychology. However, clinical psychologists are often also involved in research, training, forensic testimony, and other areas.

• Cognitive psychology - this branch investigates internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn). This branch of psychology is closely related to other disciplines, such as neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.
  
  At the center of cognitive psychology is how people acquire, process and store information. Many say that cognitive psychology is the study of intelligence. Practical applications for cognitive research may include how to improve memory, increase the accuracy of decision-making, or how to set up educational programs to boost learning.

• Developmental psychology - this is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that a person experiences over the course of his/her life span. Developmental psychology is often referred to as human development. It used to just focus on infants and young children, but also includes teenagers and adults today - the whole human life span. Developmental psychology includes any psychological factor that is studied over the life of a person, including motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, acquiring language, emotions, personality, self-concept and identity formation.
  
  Developmental psychology also looks and compares innate mental structures against learning through experience. For example, babies are thought to be born with an LAD (language acquisition device) - an inbuilt ability to acquire language. A developmental psychologist will be interested in how the LAD works compared to the baby's development through experience, and how the two interplay. A developmental psychologist will be interested in how a person's characteristics interact with environmental factors and how development is impacted. Developmental psychology overlaps with several other branches of psychology, as well as other disciplines, such as linguistics.

• Evolutionary psychology - this looks at how human behavior has been affected by psychological adjustments during evolution. Just as biologists talk about natural selection or sexual selection during evolution, this branch of psychology applies psychology to the same way of thinking. An evolutionary psychologist believes, for example, that language or memory perception are functional products of natural selection.
  
  Some evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that language learning is a capacity we are born with, making language learning a virtually automatic process - but not reading or writing. In other words, they believe our ability to learn language is inherited while our ability to read and write is not (language learning will happen automatically, while reading and writing has to be taught). A person who is born in a town that speaks French will speak French by the time he is 20. However, if he is not taught to read he will be illiterate - language is acquired automatically if it exists around you, while reading and writing are not.
  
  An evolutionary psychologist believes that our human psychological traits are adaptations for survival in the everyday environment of our ancestors.

• Forensic psychology - this involves applying psychology to criminal investigation and the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science within the criminal justice system and civil courts. Forensic psychology involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to interact with judges, lawyers and other professionals of the legal system. Forensic psychology involves the ability to testify in court, to present psychological findings in legal language to the courtroom, and to provide data to legal professionals in a clear way.
  
  A forensic psychologist needs to understand the rules, standards, and philosophy of his/her country's judicial system.

• Health psychology - also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. This branch observes how behavior, biology and social context influence illness and health. While a doctor treats the illness, the health psychologist will focus more on the person who has the illness, by finding out about their socioeconomic status and background, behaviors that may have an impact on the disease (such as medication compliance), plus the biological reasons for the illness. The aim of the health psychologist is to improve the patient's overall health by analyzing disease in the context of biopsychosocial factors. Biopsychosocial refers to the biological, psychological, and social aspects in contrast to the strictly biomedical aspects of disease.
  
  Health psychologists generally work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings.

• Neuropsychology - studies the structure and function of the brain in relation to clear behaviors and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is also involved in lesion studies in the brain, as well as recording electrical activity from cells and groups of cells in higher primates, including some human studies.
  
  A neuropsychologist will use a Neuropsychological Evaluation - a systematic assessment procedure - to determine the degree of any possible behavioral problems following suspected or diagnosed brain injury in a patient. When diagnosis is made, some patients are treated with an individualized cognitive remediation protocol - a treatment that helps the patient overcome his/her cognitive deficits.

• Occupational psychology (also known as industrial-organizational psychology, I-O psychology, work psychology, organizational psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment) - studies the performance of people at work and in training, develops an understanding of how organizations function and how people and groups behave at work. The occupational psychologist aims to increase effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction at work.
  
  The British Psychological Society says occupational psychology "is concerned with the performance of people at work in training, how organizations function and how individuals and small groups behave at work. The aim is to increase the effectiveness of the organization, and to improve the job satisfaction of the individual."

• Social psychology - uses scientific methods to understand and explain how feeling, behavior and thoughts of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people. A social psychologist will look at group behavior, social perception, non-verbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key to understanding social behavior.
  
  Put simply, social psychology studies the impact of social influences on human behavior.