Are You a Positive Thinker?

Some people just seem to have a natural ability to put a positive spin on almost everything. Rather than viewing challenges as obstacles, they see them as opportunities for growth. Instead of focusing on the negative events of their day, they think about the good things that happened.

Are you one of these positive thinkers? Research has shown that positive thinking can have a variety of health benefits ranging from lowering stress to increasing the strength and quality of our relationships. Do you have any positive thinking strategies that help you maintain an optimistic outlook on life? Please share your advice with our readers and read more about what other people have suggested - Share Your Positive Thinking Tips

Cognitive Dissonance - Psychology

Definition: What happens when new information conflicts with a previously existing belief? While we tend to seek consistency between our beliefs, our behaviors and our experience, you can probably think of a few instances where people behave in ways that are contrary to their own beliefs.
In psychology, cognitive dissonance refers to the feelings of discomfort and unease that arise when there is a discrepancy between our beliefs and behaviors. Learn more and find examples in this overview of cognitive dissonance.

Etymology of Psychology

The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (ψυχή, psukhē, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; and -λογος -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"^.The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."
Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation. For example:

• What is the most appropriate methodology for psychology: mentalism, behaviorism, or a compromise?
• Are self-reports a reliable data-gathering method?
• What conclusions can be drawn from null hypothesis tests?
• Can first-person experiences (emotions, desires, beliefs, etc.) be measured objectively?

Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind, brain, and cognition, and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of cognitive science, or philosophy of mind, such as:

• What is a cognitive module?
• Are humans rational creatures?
• What psychological phenomena come up to the standard required for calling it knowledge?
• What is innateness?  
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What is Psychological testing ?

Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual. The technical term for the science behind psychological testing is psychometrics. By samples of behavior, one means observations of an individual performing tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand, which often means scores on a test. These responses are often compiled into statistical tables that allow the evaluator to compare the behavior of the individual being tested to the responses of a norm group.

How to Read (and Understand) a Psychology Journal Article

If you are studying psychology in high school or college, you are going to need to read articles published in academic and professional journals at some point. You might read these articles as part of a literature review for a paper you are writing, or your instructor may even ask you to write a critique of an article. Whatever the reason, it is essential that you understand what you are reading and find ways to then summarize the content in your own words.

Research articles can be complex and may seem daunting, especially to beginners who have no experience reading or writing this type of paper. Learning how to read this type of writing is mostly a matter of experience, but utilizing a few simple tactics can make this process much easier.

1. Start by Understanding How a Journal Article is Structured:

At first glance, a journal article may seem to be a confusing collection of unfamiliar terminology and complicated tables. However, most articles follow a fairly standardized format that conforms to guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA). By understanding this structure, you will feel more comfortable working your way through each section.

• The Abstract: This short, paragraph-long section provides a brief overview of the article. Reading the abstract is a great way to get an idea for what information the article will cover. Reading this section first can help you decide if the article is relevant to your topic or interests.

• The Introduction: The second section of the article introduces the problem and reviews previous research and literature on the topic. This part of the article will help you better understand the background of the research and the current question that is under investigation.

• The Method Section: This part of the article details how the research was conducted. Information about the participants, the procedures, the instruments and the variables that were measured are all described in this section.

• The Results Section: So what were the actual results of the study? This important section details what the researchers found, so pay careful attention to this part of the article. Tables and figures are frequently included in addition to the text.

• The Discussion Section: What do the results of the study really mean? In this section, the author(s) interpret the results, outline the implications of the study and provide possible descriptions of future research that should be conducted.

• The References Sections: This section lists all of the articles and other sources cited within the article.

2. Skim through the article:

Once you understand the basic structure of the article, your first step should be to briefly skim through the material. Never start by doing an in-depth reading of an article before you have skimmed over each section. Attempting a thorough read-through before you’ve skimmed the contents is not only difficult; it may be a waste of valuable time. Skimming is a great way to become familiar with the topic and the information included in the paper. In some cases, you may find that the paper is not well-suited to your needs, which can save time and allow you to move on to a research article that is more appropriate.

3. Take Notes on Each Section and Ask Questions:

Your next step should be to carefully read through each section, taking notes as you go. Write down important points, but also make note of any terminology or concepts that you do not understand. Once you’ve read the entire article, go back are start looking up the information that you didn’t understand using another source. This might involve using a dictionary, textbook, online resource or even asking a classmate or your professor.

4. Identify Key Information:

Whether you are looking for information that supports the hypothesis in your own paper or carefully analyzing the article and critiquing the research methods or findings, there are important questions that you should answer as you read the article.

1. What is the main hypothesis?
2. Why is this research important?
3. Did the researchers use appropriate measurements and procedures?
4. What were the variables in the study?
5. What was the key finding of the research?
6. Do the findings justify the author’s conclusions?

5. Note the Sources Cited:

When reading a research article, it’s all too easy to focus on the main sections and overlook the references. However, the reference section can actually be one of the most important parts of the paper, especially if you are looking for further sources for your own paper. Spending some time reviewing this section can indicate important research articles on the topic area in which you are interested.

Women in Psychology

The contributions of women psychologists have often been overlooked throughout psychology's history. Learn more about the lives, careers, and theories of some of the best known women in psychology.

• Important Women in Psychology History

The contributions of many of psychology's most eminent female thinkers have long been ignored, but that is starting to change as more history texts begin to recognize women such as Karen Horney, Mary Ainsworth, Leta Hollingworth and Christine Ladd-Franklin in their pages. Learn more about some of the most famous women in psychology.

• Anna Freud Biography

Anna Freud was influenced by her father's psychoanalytic theories, but her own contributions to ego psychology and child psychoanalysis made her an important theorist in her own right. Learn more about her life, career, and contributions to psychology in this biography of Anna Freud.

• Karen Horney Biography

Karen Horney made significant contributions to psychoanalysis, personality theory, and feminine psychology. Learn more about Karen Horney's life, career, and contributions to psychology.

• Melanie Klein Biography

Melanie Klein was an Austrian psychoanalyst best known for creating the therapeutic technique known as play therapy. Learn more about her life, career, and theory in this brief biography of Melanie Klein.

• Mary Whiton Calkins Biography

Mary Whiton Calkins is probably best-known as the first woman president of the American Psychological Association, but she made many more contributions to the field as well. Learn more about the life, career, and contributions of Mary Whiton Calkins.

• Mary Ainsworth Biography

Learn more about developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in this brief biography of her life, career and contributions to psychology.

• Mamie Phipps Clark Biography

Mamie Phipps Clark was a pioneering psychologist who faced considerable obstacles in psychology because of her race and her sex. Learn more about her life and legacy.

Other Thinkers Also Considered "Fathers of Psychology"

A number of other influential thinkers can also claim to be "Fathers of Psychology" in some way or another. The following are just a few of these individuals who are noted in specific areas of psychology:

• William James: The Father of American Psychology; he helped establish psychology in the U.S. and his book, The Principles of Psychology, became an instant classic.

• Sigmund Freud: The Father of Psychoanalysis; his theories and work established psychoanalysis as a major school of thought in psychology.
• Hugo Münsterberg: The Father of Applied Psychology; he was an early pioneer of several applied areas including clinical, forensic and industrial-organizational psychology.

• John Bowlby: The Father of Attachment Theory; he developed the theory of attachment.

• Kurt Lewin: The Father of Social Psychology; his work pioneered the use of scientific methods to study social behavior.

• Edward Thorndike: The Father of Modern Educational Psychology; his research on the learning process helped establish the foundation for educational psychology.

• Jean Piaget: The Father of Developmental Psychology; his theory of cognitive development revolutionized how research thought about children's intellectual growth.

• Ulric Neisser: The Father of Modern Cognitive Psychology; the cognitive movement in psychology received a major boost from the publication of his 1967 book, Cognitive Psychology.

• Lightner Witmer: The Father of Modern Clinical Psychology; he founded the world's first journal devoted to clinical psychology, The Psychological Clinic, in 1907.

• Gordon Allport: The Father of Personality Psychology; he was one of the first psychologists to study personality.

Obviously, not everyone is going to agree with these generalized titles. A few people might suggest that Freud is the father of psychology, since he is perhaps one of its most "known" figures. Others might suggest that Aristotle is the true father of psychology, since he is responsible for the theoretical and philosophical framework that contributed to psychology's earliest beginnings. Still others might argue that those earliest researchers such as Helmholtz and Fechner deserve credit as the founders of psychology.
No matter which side of the argument you are on, one thing that is easy to agree on is that all of these individuals had an important influence on the growth and development of psychology. While the theories of each individual are not necessarily as influential today, all of these psychologists were important in their own time and had a major impact on how psychology